Why are Africa’s critical minerals so important for the global energy transition?

Africa's critical minerals are central to the global energy transition because the continent holds a substantial share of the world's known reserves of the minerals needed for low-carbon technologies. Countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Gabon, Ghana, Zimbabwe and Mali collectively have vast resources of cobalt, manganese, lithium, graphite and other strategic commodities – minerals essential for manufacturing lithium-ion batteries and used in many forms of renewable energy infrastructure. Cobalt and nickel are vital for battery cathodes, lithium and manganese for battery performance, and graphite for battery anodes. Africa’s copper is needed for electrical wiring, grid expansion and electric vehicle motors.

How is China involved in Africa's critical mineral supply chains and what is the Belt and Road Initiative?

China has become the dominant external player in Africa's critical mineral sector, using long-term investment, infrastructure projects and minerals-for-loans deals to secure access to key resources. Central to this approach is the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), under which China finances and builds infrastructure across Asia, Africa and Europe, often in exchange for preferential access to natural resources. In Africa, this has translated into high-profile resource-backed deals, such as the Sicomines project in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which allowed Chinese investors to obtain a majority stake in a copper-cobalt joint venture; in return, mining revenues were earmarked to fund Congolese infrastructure. Deals of this kind have enabled China to secure long-term supplies of critical minerals for its battery, electronics and clean energy industries.

What is the United States’ strategy for securing critical minerals from Africa, and how does it differ from China's approach?

The United States views access to Africa’s critical minerals as an economic necessity and a national security priority. In several cases, it is wholly dependent on imports, and on supplies that are processed or controlled by China, prompting Washington to seek alternative sources and more resilient supply chains, including by diversifying away from Chinese-controlled supply chains while increasing access to African resources. President Trump’s strategy focuses on individual deals to secure volumes of specific minerals, including a US-brokered truce between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, framed in part as a way to stabilise cobalt and lithium supply corridors, and a trilateral agreement with the DRC and Zambia to develop an integrated value chain for electric vehicle batteries.

How can African countries maximise the benefits of their critical minerals and avoid a purely extractive model?

To maximise the benefits of critical minerals, African countries need to shift from being primarily exporters of raw ores to becoming active participants in higher-value stages of the supply chain. At present, most of Africa's mineral exports leave the continent unprocessed, meaning most of the value added through refining and processing accrues elsewhere. Changing this pattern requires coordinated policy decisions, investment in industrial capacity and stronger regional integration and development of domestic processing and refining capabilities, by building smelters, refineries and battery precursor plants near the mine mouth. This could increase government revenues, create skilled jobs, stimulate supporting sectors and foster the emergence of industrial clusters around key minerals, laying the foundation for broader manufacturing capabilities.

What is the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and how might it change the future of Africa's critical minerals?

AfCFTA is a landmark trade agreement designed to create a single, integrated goods and services market across Africa, bringing together 55 countries and around 1.3 billion people. It aims to progressively remove tariffs on at least 97% of intra-African trade and reduce non-tariff barriers, such as cumbersome customs procedures and regulatory differences. Trading under AfCFTA began in 2021, although full implementation will take time. Historically, Africa has exported most of its mineralsto Europe, China, the US and other external partners. Intra-African trade in minerals and processed products has been relatively limited, reflecting fragmented markets, poor infrastructure and differing regulatory regimes. AfCFTA aims to make intra-African trade easier and cheaper. If successful, the agreement could support the creation of regional value chains for critical minerals.

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